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:* [[Zebrafish|''Brachydanio rerio'']]<ref name="Kocher-2005">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kocher | first1 = TD. | last2 = Jeffery | first2 = WR. | last3 = Parichy | first3 = DM. | last4 = Peichel | first4 = CL. | last5 = Streelman | first5 = JT. | last6 = Thorgaard | first6 = GH. | title = Special feature--roundtable discussion. Fish models for studying adaptive evolution and speciation. | journal = Zebrafish | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 147-56 | month = | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1089/zeb.2005.2.147 | PMID = 18248189 }}</ref><ref name="Bradbury-2004">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bradbury | first1 = J. | title = Small fish, big science. | journal = PLoS Biol | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = E148 | month = May | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020148 | PMID = 15138510 }}</ref> o (''Danio rerio'') conosciuto come ''[[Zebrafish]]'', è un pesce d'acqua dolce molto usato negli acquari. Ha un corpo quasi trasparente durante il primo sviluppo, ciò fornisce un accesso visivo all'anatomia interna dell'animale. Gli Zebrafish sono utilizzati per studiare lo sviluppo, la tossicologia<ref name="Hill-2005">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hill | first1 = AJ. | last2 = Teraoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Heideman | first3 = W. | last4 = Peterson | first4 = RE. | title = Zebrafish as a model vertebrate for investigating chemical toxicity. | journal = Toxicol Sci | volume = 86 | issue = 1 | pages = 6-19 | month = Jul | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfi110 | PMID = 15703261 }}</ref> e tossicopatologia<ref name="Spitsbergen-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Spitsbergen | first1 = JM. | last2 = Kent | first2 = ML. | title = The state of the art of the zebrafish model for toxicology and toxicologic pathology research--advantages and current limitations. | journal = Toxicol Pathol | volume = 31 Suppl | issue = | pages = 62-87 | month = | year = | doi = | PMID = 12597434 }}</ref> e la specifica funzione del gene e il ruolo delle vie di segnalazione.
:* [[Zebrafish|''Brachydanio rerio'']]<ref name="Kocher-2005">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kocher | first1 = TD. | last2 = Jeffery | first2 = WR. | last3 = Parichy | first3 = DM. | last4 = Peichel | first4 = CL. | last5 = Streelman | first5 = JT. | last6 = Thorgaard | first6 = GH. | title = Special feature--roundtable discussion. Fish models for studying adaptive evolution and speciation. | journal = Zebrafish | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 147-56 | month = | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1089/zeb.2005.2.147 | PMID = 18248189 }}</ref><ref name="Bradbury-2004">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bradbury | first1 = J. | title = Small fish, big science. | journal = PLoS Biol | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = E148 | month = May | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020148 | PMID = 15138510 }}</ref> o (''Danio rerio'') conosciuto come ''[[Zebrafish]]'', è un pesce d'acqua dolce molto usato negli acquari. Ha un corpo quasi trasparente durante il primo sviluppo, ciò fornisce un accesso visivo all'anatomia interna dell'animale. Gli Zebrafish sono utilizzati per studiare lo sviluppo, la tossicologia<ref name="Hill-2005">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hill | first1 = AJ. | last2 = Teraoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Heideman | first3 = W. | last4 = Peterson | first4 = RE. | title = Zebrafish as a model vertebrate for investigating chemical toxicity. | journal = Toxicol Sci | volume = 86 | issue = 1 | pages = 6-19 | month = Jul | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfi110 | PMID = 15703261 }}</ref> e tossicopatologia<ref name="Spitsbergen-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Spitsbergen | first1 = JM. | last2 = Kent | first2 = ML. | title = The state of the art of the zebrafish model for toxicology and toxicologic pathology research--advantages and current limitations. | journal = Toxicol Pathol | volume = 31 Suppl | issue = | pages = 62-87 | month = | year = | doi = | PMID = 12597434 }}</ref> e la specifica funzione del gene e il ruolo delle vie di segnalazione.
:* [[Taeniopygia guttata]]<ref name="Benskin-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Benskin | first1 = CM. | last2 = Rhodes | first2 = G. | last3 = Pickup | first3 = RW. | last4 = Wilson | first4 = K. | last5 = Hartley | first5 = IR. | title = Diversity and temporal stability of bacterial communities in a model passerine bird, the zebra finch. | journal = Mol Ecol | volume = | issue = | pages = | month = Nov | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04892.x | PMID = 21054607 }}</ref><ref name="Warren-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Warren | first1 = WC. | last2 = Clayton | first2 = DF. | last3 = Ellegren | first3 = H. | last4 = Arnold | first4 = AP. | last5 = Hillier | first5 = LW. | last6 = Künstner | first6 = A. | last7 = Searle | first7 = S. | last8 = White | first8 = S. | last9 = Vilella | first9 = AJ. | title = The genome of a songbird. | journal = Nature | volume = 464 | issue = 7289 | pages = 757-62 | month = Apr | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1038/nature08819 | PMID = 20360741 }}</ref><ref name="Luo-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Luo | first1 = M. | last2 = Yu | first2 = Y. | last3 = Kim | first3 = H. | last4 = Kudrna | first4 = D. | last5 = Itoh | first5 = Y. | last6 = Agate | first6 = RJ. | last7 = Melamed | first7 = E. | last8 = Goicoechea | first8 = JL. | last9 = Talag | first9 = J. | title = Utilization of a zebra finch BAC library to determine the structure of an avian androgen receptor genomic region. | journal = Genomics | volume = 87 | issue = 1 | pages = 181-90 | month = Jan | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1016/j.ygeno.2005.09.005 | PMID = 16321505 }}</ref> (Zebra finch) o (diamante mandarino viene usato per studi sugli apparati uditivi dei non mammiferi.
:* [[Taeniopygia guttata]]<ref name="Benskin-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Benskin | first1 = CM. | last2 = Rhodes | first2 = G. | last3 = Pickup | first3 = RW. | last4 = Wilson | first4 = K. | last5 = Hartley | first5 = IR. | title = Diversity and temporal stability of bacterial communities in a model passerine bird, the zebra finch. | journal = Mol Ecol | volume = | issue = | pages = | month = Nov | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04892.x | PMID = 21054607 }}</ref><ref name="Warren-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Warren | first1 = WC. | last2 = Clayton | first2 = DF. | last3 = Ellegren | first3 = H. | last4 = Arnold | first4 = AP. | last5 = Hillier | first5 = LW. | last6 = Künstner | first6 = A. | last7 = Searle | first7 = S. | last8 = White | first8 = S. | last9 = Vilella | first9 = AJ. | title = The genome of a songbird. | journal = Nature | volume = 464 | issue = 7289 | pages = 757-62 | month = Apr | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1038/nature08819 | PMID = 20360741 }}</ref><ref name="Luo-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Luo | first1 = M. | last2 = Yu | first2 = Y. | last3 = Kim | first3 = H. | last4 = Kudrna | first4 = D. | last5 = Itoh | first5 = Y. | last6 = Agate | first6 = RJ. | last7 = Melamed | first7 = E. | last8 = Goicoechea | first8 = JL. | last9 = Talag | first9 = J. | title = Utilization of a zebra finch BAC library to determine the structure of an avian androgen receptor genomic region. | journal = Genomics | volume = 87 | issue = 1 | pages = 181-90 | month = Jan | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1016/j.ygeno.2005.09.005 | PMID = 16321505 }}</ref> (Zebra finch) o (diamante mandarino viene usato per studi sugli apparati uditivi dei non mammiferi.
:* [[Macaca mulatta]]<ref name="Snowden-1998">{{Cite journal | last1 = Snowden | first1 = KF. | last2 = Didier | first2 = ES. | last3 = Orenstein | first3 = JM. | last4 = Shadduck | first4 = JA. | title = Animal models of human microsporidial infections. | journal = Lab Anim Sci | volume = 48 | issue = 6 | pages = 589-92 | month = Dec | year = 1998 | doi = | PMID = 10090081 }}</ref> - Il Rhesus macaque o macaco vien usato negli studi sulla cognizione<ref name="Sripati-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Sripati | first1 = AP. | last2 = Olson | first2 = CR. | title = Global image dissimilarity in macaque inferotemporal cortex predicts human visual search efficiency. | journal = J Neurosci | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 1258-69 | month = Jan | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1908-09.2010 | PMID = 20107054 }}</ref><ref name="Samonds-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Samonds | first1 = JM. | last2 = Potetz | first2 = BR. | last3 = Lee | first3 = TS. | title = Cooperative and competitive interactions facilitate stereo computations in macaque primary visual cortex. | journal = J Neurosci | volume = 29 | issue = 50 | pages = 15780-95 | month = Dec | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2305-09.2009 | PMID = 20016094 }}</ref><ref name="Nekovarova-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Nekovarova | first1 = T. | last2 = Nedvidek | first2 = J. | last3 = Klement | first3 = D. | last4 = Bures | first4 = J. | title = Spatial decisions and cognitive strategies of monkeys and humans based on abstract spatial stimuli in rotation test. | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 106 | issue = 36 | pages = 15478-82 | month = Sep | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0907053106 | PMID = 19706408 }}</ref><ref name="Adachi-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Adachi | first1 = I. | last2 = Chou | first2 = DP. | last3 = Hampton | first3 = RR. | title = Thatcher effect in monkeys demonstrates conservation of face perception across primates. | journal = Curr Biol | volume = 19 | issue = 15 | pages = 1270-3 | month = Aug | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.067 | PMID = 19559613 }}</ref> e nelle malattie infettive.<ref name="Wilson-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = NA. | last2 = Watkins | first2 = DI. | title = Is an HIV vaccine possible? | journal = Braz J Infect Dis | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 304-10 | month = Aug | year = 2009 | doi = | PMID = 20231996 }}</ref><ref name="Silvestri-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Silvestri | first1 = G. | title = Immunity in natural SIV infections. | journal = J Intern Med | volume = 265 | issue = 1 | pages = 97-109 | month = Jan | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02049.x | PMID = 19093963 }}</ref><ref name="Grimaldi Jr-2008">{{Cite journal | last1 = Grimaldi Jr | first1 = G. | title = The utility of rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) and other non-human primate models for preclinical testing of Leishmania candidate vaccines. | journal = Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz | volume = 103 | issue = 7 | pages = 629-44 | month = Nov | year = 2008 | doi = | PMID = 19057811 }}</ref>
:* [[Macaca mulatta]] - Il Rhesus macaque o macaco vien usato negli studi sulla cognizione e nelle malattie infettive.
:* [[Felis sylvestris catus]] - Il gatto è usato nelle ricerche di neurofisiologia.
:* [[Felis sylvestris catus]]<ref name="Lee-1995">{{Cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = A. | title = Animal models and vaccine development. | journal = Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 615-32 | month = Sep | year = 1995 | doi = | PMID = 8563056 }}</ref><ref name="Meredith-1986">{{Cite journal | last1 = Meredith | first1 = MA. | last2 = Stein | first2 = BE. | title = Visual, auditory, and somatosensory convergence on cells in superior colliculus results in multisensory integration. | journal = J Neurophysiol | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 640-62 | month = Sep | year = 1986 | doi = | PMID = 3537225 }}</ref><ref name="Møller-1982">{{Cite journal | last1 = Møller | first1 = BR. | last2 = Mårdh | first2 = PA. | title = Animal models for the study of Chlamydial infections of the urogenital tract. | journal = Scand J Infect Dis Suppl | volume = 32 | issue = | pages = 103-8 | month = | year = 1982 | doi = | PMID = 6813962 }}</ref> - Il gatto è usato nelle ricerche di neurofisiologia.


==Organismi modello usati per specifiche ricerche ==
==Organismi modello usati per specifiche ricerche ==

Versione delle 10:57, 21 nov 2010

Caenorhabditis elegans, un tipico organismo modello eucariote.

Un organismo modello è una specie estensivamente studiata per comprendere particolari fenomeni biologici, in base al presupposto che le acquisizioni fatte sull'organismo modello possano fornire indicazioni sugli altri organismi. Ciò è possibile grazie al fatto che i principi biologici fondamentali, come le vie metaboliche, di regolazione e di sviluppo, e i geni che le codificano, si mantengono attraverso l'evoluzione.

Il primo organismo modello impiegato in esperimenti rigorosi per la comprensione dell'ereditarietà è stato il Pisum sativum[1] di Gregor Mendel.[2][3] Il pisello da orto infatti risponde a specifiche esigenze di incrocio controllato, rapido passo generazionale, prole numerosa, caratteri fenotipici alternativi e disponibilità di numerose varietà commerciali. Queste caratteristiche lo resero ottimale per un approccio ai problemi della ereditarietà di tipo quantitativo e statistico.

Spesso, gli organismi modello vengono scelti in base alla loro capacità di essere adattabili a manipolazioni sperimentali. Di solito vengono preferite le seguenti caratteristiche: breve ciclo cellulare, tecniche per manipolazione genetica (ceppi inbred, linee di cellule staminali, e sistemi di transfezione). A volte, il riarrangiamento genetico favorisce il sequenziamento del genoma dell'organismo modello, per esempio, perché è molto compatto o per avere scarsa quantità di DNA non codificante, il cosiddetto "DNA spazzatura" (junk DNA).

Esistono numerosi organismi modello. Il primo organismo modello per la biologia molecolare probabilmente è stato il batterio E.coli, comunemente presente nel sistema digerente umano (e di solito ha attività benefica -- il pericoloso ceppo Escherichia coli O157:H7 è raro). Viene utilizzato anche nello studio di molti batteriofagi, specialmente il fago lambda.

Negli eucarioti sono stati studiati approfonditamente alcuni lieviti, specialmente il Saccharomyces cerevisiae (lievito della birra), soprattutto perché sono facili da gestire. Il ciclo cellulare in un lievito è molto simile al ciclo cellulare negli umani ed è regolato da proteine omologhe. È stato studiato anche il moscerino della frutta Drosophila melanogaster, sempre perché è facile da gestire per essere un organismo multicellulare. Il verme Caenorhabditis elegans è stato studiato perché ha stadi di sviluppo estremamente definiti ed è possibile, quindi, rivelare rapidamente delle anormalità.

Quando i ricercatori cercano un organismo da usare nei loro studi, prendono in considerazione parecchie caratteristiche. Le più comuni sono le dimensioni, il tempo di generazione, l'accessibilità, la manipolazione, la genetica, la conservazione dei meccanismi e un potenziale beneficio economico. Con la diffusione della biologia molecolare comparata, i ricercatori hanno cercato organismi modello che rappresentassero diverse tipologie di vita.

Principali organismi modello

Virus

  • Lisi di placche di E. coli da parte del batteriofago Lamda.
    Lisi di placche di E. coli da parte del batteriofago Lamda.
  • Struttura del capside del batteriofago phi X 174
    Struttura del capside del batteriofago phi X 174
  • Microscopia elettronica del Virus del Mosaico del Tabacco TMV
    Microscopia elettronica del Virus del Mosaico del Tabacco TMV
  • Virus del Mosaico del Tabacco a 160.000 X ingrandimenti
    Virus del Mosaico del Tabacco a 160.000 X ingrandimenti

Procarioti


Eucarioti unicellulari


Eucarioti pluricellulari

Piante

Funghi

Invertebrati

Vertebrati

Mus musculus

Organismi modello usati per specifiche ricerche

Selezione e conflitti sessuali

Zone ibride

  • Bombina bombina and variegata
  • Podisma spp. nelle Alpi
  • Caledia captiva (Orthoptera) in Australia

Ecologia genomica

  • Daphnia pulex, un organismo modello di indicatore comportamentale

Tavola genetica degli organismi modello

La tabella indica lo status del Progetto genoma per ciascun organismo, mostrando dell'organismo la ricombinazione omologa e lo stato delle conoscenze delle vie biochimiche dell'organismo.

Organismo Sequenziazione genomica Ricombinazione omologa Biochimica
Procariota
Escherichia coli Si Si Eccellente
Eucariota unicellulare
Dictyostelium discoideum Si Si Eccellente
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Si Si Buono
Schizosaccharomyces pombe Si Si Buono
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii si No Buono
Tetrahymena thermophila Si Si Buono
Eucariota unicellulare
Caenorhabditis elegans Si Sifficoltoso Non così buono
Drosophila melanogaster Si Diffixile Buono
Arabidopsis thaliana Si No Cattivo
Physcomitrella patens Si Si Eccellente
Vertebrato
Danio rerio Si No Buono
Mus musculus Si Si Buono
Xenopus laevis[191] Si
Homo sapiens NB: non è un organismo modello Si Si Buono

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