Utente:Puxanto/Sandbox/Mores (antica Roma)

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Origini del Mos Maiorum[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Il mos maiorum è il risultato di secoli di scoperte su ciò che accadeva prima che i romani sviluppassero reperti scritti. Le pratiche rituali nacquero presto nella storia romana, poichè si sentiva la necessità di avere funzioni specifiche nella società. Comunque, il significato delle pratiche tradizionali e dei rituali arcaici getta le sue radici nelle consuetudini collettive. I Lupercalia, per esempio, un'antica festività celebrata a Roma ogni ogni 15 Febbraio [1], è rimasta sconosciuta fino ai tempi di Augusto, nel tardo Primo Secolo Avanti Cristo. In alcuni casi la rilevanza di tali pratiche veniva sminuita dalla società, come per la pratica del matrimonio confarreatio[2]. Queste arcaiche pratiche di matrimonio sono state successivamente abbandonate a causa della rigidità dell'unione stabilita dal matrimonio. Nonostante la progressiva perdità di rilevanza di queste pratiche, l'importanza del mores maiorum non ha mai rischiato di fare la stessa fine.

I Romani utilizzavano l'auctoritas maiorum per convalidare gli sviluppi, affinchè la loro società si sviluppasse. Gaio Svetonio Tranquillo racconta di un editto di censura del 92 a.C., che dichiarava, “tutte le novità fatte contrariamente alle usanze e alle tradizioni dei nostri antenati, non devono essere considerate giuste.” [3] Questo editto riflette il forte conservatorismo che era un marchio di fabbrica della società Romana. Il mos maiorum è praticamente una collezione di complesse norme usate non solo come espedienti per mantenere legami con la tradizione antica, ma, considerato il forte conservatorismo dei Romani, ma fungeva anche da mezzo a cui far riferimento per risolvere i problemi più difficili. Mentre ius trattava di diritti individuali, essi riflettevano l'interesse allo stato e alla società. In una società patriarcale, dominata dall'aristocrazia, i costumi erano interpretati per servire i bisogni dell'aristocrazia. La patria potestà riflette quest'uso dei costumi. La potesta del padre constentiva ad esso il controllo completo su schiavi, moglie e figli. [4]. Il Mores giustificava la posizione dell'uomo maschio più vecchio e il suo comando fino alla fine della sua vita. Contrariamente, il mores limitava la potestà del padre per controllare la sua forza ed evitare che egli punisse eccessivamente o uccidesse mebri della sua famiglia, il tutto se egli aveva consultato correttamente un consilium. [5]

Politiche[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

La partecipazione nella vita pubblica era parte dominante della vita del cittadino maschio nella Roma antica. La vita pubblica comprendeva politica, esercito, legge e anche sacerdozio. Nella politica, il cursus honorum divenne la procedura standard di attribuzione delle cariche The observance of this track was considered conventional; however, there were deviations from cursus. Lucius Appuleius Saturninus e Gaius Servilius Glaucia, in associazione con Gaius Marius la sua legislazione e le elezioni, ruppe la tradizione cercando il consenso dei Tribuna della plevetribuni. Mario stesso smise di accettare la tradizione dell'elite romana. Mario non fu solo un homo novus di gran successo, ma fu eletto 7 volte console, cosa mai accaduta prima. Queste figure contrastano fortemente con la carriera di Cicero, che seguì severamente il cursus honorum e mantenne una gran coerenza nel sostenere gli interessi dell'aristocrazia e i valori ancestrali da essa salvaguardati. Cicero ottenne molta della sua fama dalla sua abilità di oratore, lavorando come difensore e Pubblico Ministero nelle corti.

La legge (il diritto) era legata strettamente al cursus honorum e alle magistrature che un cittadino poteva sperare di ottenere. La classe superiore, avendo più conoscenze su legge ed orazione (poichè erano concetti primari dell'educazione), would fulfill the roles of prosecution, defender, and even judges. These roles were traditional duties for the upper class, who could shoulder the responsibility. Although a great deal of responsibilities lay in civilian life, as was common around the ancient world, Romans were also expected to serve in the military (trad. da rivedere :Ricoprirebbe i ruoli di pubblico ministero, avvocato della difesa e persino di giudici. Questi ruoli erano doveri tradizionali per il patriziato, che poteva accollarsi tale responsabilità . Per quanto gran parte della responsabilità ricadesse nella vita da civili, come era normale nel mondo antico, era previsto che i Romani prestassero servizio nell'esercito).

Campo militare[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Il mos del militare stabiliva che i soldati cittadini venivano obbligati all'arruolamento tramite minacce riguardanti lo stato intero, ma dopo Mario entrarono in vigore i soldati professionisti, alleati dei loro generali. L' esercito romano era originariamente costituito da persone della classe superiore, poichè essi erano gli unici membri della società che potevano permettersi i costi economici delle armi ed assenze dal lavoro giornaliero. La speranza degli uomini romani era di unirsi all'esercito ed ottenere gloria a servizio dello stato, e quando non erano impegnati in battaglie o guerre, riponevano le armi e si dedicavano alla vita civile. Comunque, Gaio Mario riformò l'esercito per includere capite censi e sottomettere le truppe al suo controllo prima ancora che a quello dello stato.

Tradizione religiosa[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Unlike modern western religion, the Romans did not segregate religious practices and service to the state. Instead, the Romans maintained the practice of their Indo-European ancestors of leaving priesthoods tied to the state. The Collegium Pontificum consisted of different cults that had an appointed priest, who could simultaneously hold a political and/or military position. In the private home Romans would also have regular worship to the Penates, which were the gods of the inner home[6]. The Lares are also common fixtures in Roman private religion, in addition to the Roman anthropomorphic figures. They are guardian spirits, who vary in the specificities of their roles, depending on their manifestations. As the lares Augusti, they were they guardian spirits of the emperor. Common epithets include lares compitales, who were the guardians of the crossroads and lares familiaris, who were the guardians of the household.

Patronato and Clientela[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Another major facet of Roman tradition is the patronus and cliens (patron and client) relationship. This is the relationship that commonly occurred between plebeians and patricians, where in return for the protection of the patronus, the cliens offered services until the debt was returned or longer. Later in Roman history, after Augustus’ rise to princeps, more of the population falls into the clienthood of the imperator until eventually all do.

The Changing Roles of the Mores[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Along with the change in patron-client relations, the place of the mos maiorum changes under the principate. Before Augustus, the place of the mores had been related, but separate from that of laws and regulations; however, a shift toward legalizing the romanticized ideals of the ancestral traditions occurs. Under Augustus and his moral reforms, the place of the mores maiorum becomes subject to the will of the emperor, though they survive until the reign of Justinian.

Cornerstones of the Mores Maiorum[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

All aspects of life, including both the public and private arenas, were immeasurably influenced by the mores that had been established over centuries. Some of the components deserve special attention because of their importance in the greater picture of the mores maiorum.

Fides[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

The Latin word fides has multiple meanings; however, these meanings are all based around similar principles: truth, faith, honesty, and trustworthiness. It can be seen in use with other words to create terms such as bonae fidei (“in good faith”) or fidem habere (“to be credible”, or more literally “to have trustworthiness”). In Roman law, fides was extremely important. As in all ancient cultures, verbal contracts were very common in Roman daily life, and so good faith allows business transactions to be made with greater confidence. If this good faith were betrayed, then a legal case could be made for the offended person[7].

As the Roman goddess, Fides represented a cult that was very old in the city of Rome. She was the goddess of good faith and presided over verbal contracts[8]. She was depicted as an old woman and was considered older than Jupiter [9]. Her temple is dated from around 254 BCE[10] and was located on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, near the Temple of Jupiter. According to Livy [11], the legendary second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, founded her cult. Livy goes into details of the worship of Fides in his history of Rome. Her rituals were performed by the flamines maiores, who were the priests of the ancestors. These priests brought the shrine of Fides in a covered carriage drawn by a pair of horses to the place of celebration. Since Fides was considered to dwell in the right hand of a man, she was represented during the Roman Empire on coins with a pair of covered hands, to symbolize the credibility of the emperor and the legions[12]. The covering of the hands reflected the worship of Fides, where the man performing the sacrifice would cover his hands to the fingers to religiously preserve Fides[13].


Pietas[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Pietas is not the equivalent of the modern derivative “piety.” Pietas was the Roman attitude of dutiful respect towards the gods, fatherland, parents and other kinsmen. The term incorporated a sense of moral duty, not merely the observance of rituals (this is covered by the term cultus). Thus, pietas required the maintenance of relationships with those listed above in a moral and dutiful manner[14]. According to Cicero, “pietas is justice towards the gods,” [15] and as such demanded more of the observer than mere sacrifice and correct ritual performance, but also the inner devotion and righteousness of the individual. Pietas could be displayed in numerous ways. For example, Julius Caesar displayed pietas during his life by beginning in 52 BCE and dedicating in 48 BCE, after the battle of Pharsalus, a temple to Venus Genetrix. The temple was dedicated to Venus as the mother of Aeneas and thus the ancestor of the Julii (the gens of Julius Caesar). Augustus, after the death of Marcus Antonius and with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus out of the way[16] (these two men are Augustus’ co-triumvirs in the Second Triumvirate), built a Temple of Caesar in order to honor his adoptive father. Some Romans, because of their role as pious individuals, adopted the cognomen Pius. The emperor Antoninus Pius received this addition to his name because of his role in convincing the senate to deify his adoptive father, the emperor Hadrian, and for the pietas he showed toward his elderly biological father in public.

Such was the importance of pietas that according to Livy[17], it received a temple dedicated in 181 BCE. Similar to other abstract concepts in Roman culture, Pietas appeared often in anthropomorphic form, and was sometimes accompanied by a stork (a symbol of filial piety) [18]. She was adopted by Augustus as Pietas Augusta to display his own pietas, as can be seen on coins from the period[19].

Religio and Cultus[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Religio was not “religion” in the modern sense of the word. Religio is related to Latin verb religare (“to bind”). In the Roman mind religio represented a tie between the gods and mortals. This bond is more in the respect of awe and obligation (out of superstition), and is related to the religious practices and customs of the Romans[20]. Roman men and women were expected to be aware of these ties and to honor the gods through religious observances in an attempt to maintain a pax deorum (“peace of the gods”). In accordance with the noun, the adjective religiosus meant an exaggeration of religious practice to the point of superstition. The Romans regarded religio as a necessary part of life, so as to keep order and normalcy in the community or to a greater extent, the world. The motivation behind these observances is not morally based as modern Judeo-Christian values are, but instead are based around appeasement of the gods and expectancy of rewards. To guarantee a victory a general would promise a temple to a deity, or in hopes of alleviating hardship, community members would make sacrifices. Livy implies this necessity in his description of the capture of the goddess Juno (in statue form) from Veii [21]. Livy notes that it was against the religio of the Etruscans to touch the statue unless a member of the hereditary priesthood. The Roman soldiers in turn are cleaned, robed and then ask the goddess if she would come to Rome. This was not tied to pietas and its inherent morality, but instead it was the related to the concept of cultus.

Cultus was the obligated observance and correct performance of rituals to the gods. Romans religious practices were oriented towards the correct performance of rituals not the ethics and morals of person. The gods were pleased by the attention to their rites and thus Romans hoped to gain favor by performing sacrifices and other ritual formulae in the correct manner[22].


Disciplina[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

In Latin, the word disciplina is related to education, training, discipline and self-control. This military nature of the Roman society explains a great deal the importance of this characteristic, and perhaps because of their military inclination, also shows itself in daily life of the Romans. In his Philippicae against Marcus Antonius, Cicero maligns the character of Marcus Antonius, portraying the triumvir as man without self-control[23], showing the importance of the characteristic by emphasizing Marcus Antonius’ lack of discipline[24].

Disciplina as a goddess was used as propaganda tool, especially under the empire. In inscriptions she is referred to as the discipline of the emperor in relation to his role over the legions. This is why inscriptions and dedications are known from locations such as England and North Africa. Under the emperor Hadrian, these dedications are made and coins are minted to help secure the minds of border legions[25].


Gravitas and Constantia[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Gravitas, not to be confused with the modern word gravity, represented the value of dignified, self-control[26]. In the face of adversity, a “good” Roman was to display an unperturbed façade. Roman myth and history reinforced this value by recounting tales of figures such as Gaius Mucius Scaevola [27]. At the founding of the Republic, the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna was laying siege to the city of Rome, and with city in dire straits, Scaevola attempted to assassinate Porsenna. However, Scaevola failed and was caught. When the king threatened torture if Scaevola did not answer his questions about Rome, Scaevola placed his right hand in a fire and held it there with great gravitas, telling the king that there were more in Rome just like himself. The gravitas that Scaevola displayed not only earned him the name Scaevola (“left-handed”), but also helped convince Porsenna of the Romans’ resiliency.

While gravitas was dignified self-control, constantia was steadiness or perseverance. This value coupled with gravitas played no small role in the history and success of the Roman people. Constantia allowed the Romans to hold fast in times of great turmoil and devastating defeat, such as the campaign of Hannibal Barca [28].


Virtus[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Virtus is derived from the Latin word vir (“man”) and encompasses what constituted the ideal of the true Roman male[29]. Multiple aspects are covered by this term. The poet Gaius Lucilius discusses virtus in some of his work, saying that it is virtus for a man to know what is good, evil, useless, shameful, or dishonorable[30].


Dignitas and Auctoritas[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Dignitas and auctoritas were the end result of displaying the values of the ideal Roman and the service of the state in the forms of priesthoods, military positions, and magistracies. Dignitas was reputation for worth, honor and esteem. Thus, a Roman who displayed their gravitas, constantia, fides, pietas and other values becoming a Roman would possess dignitas among their peers. Similarly, through this path, a Roman could earn auctoritas (“prestige and respect”) [31].

See a more complete list of Roman virtues.

Notes[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

  1. ^ ""Lupercalia,"O.C.D. pg 892
  2. ^ "Manus," Berger. pg 577
  3. ^ Suetonius, De Claris Rhetoribus, i.
  4. ^ "Mores," Brill Online[1]
  5. ^ Seneca, De Clemetia, i.15.6-6, i.16.1
  6. ^ "Penates," O.C.D. pg 1135
  7. ^ “Bona fides,” Berger. pg 374
  8. ^ Adkins. pg 78
  9. ^ Adkins. pg 78
  10. ^ Ziolkowski, “Temples”
  11. ^ Ab Urbe Condita. i. 21
  12. ^ “Fides,” O.C.D. pg 595
  13. ^ Ab Urbe Condita. i. 21
  14. ^ Adkins. p. 180
  15. ^ De Natura Deorum. 1.116
  16. ^ Stambaugh. pg 50
  17. ^ Ab Urbe Condita. xxxx. 34
  18. ^ “Pietas,” O.C.D. p. 1182
  19. ^ Adkins. p.180
  20. ^ Adkins. pg 190
  21. ^ Ab Urbe Condita. v. 23
  22. ^ Adkins. pg 55
  23. ^ Phillipicae. II
  24. ^ see Plutarch’s Antony, for further characterization of Antonius.
  25. ^ Adkins. p. 63
  26. ^ Ward. p. 58
  27. ^ Ab Urbe Condita. ii. 12
  28. ^ Ab Urbe Condita. xxii. 58. See also Ogilvie’s Commentary on Livy 1-5.
  29. ^ Ward. p. 57
  30. ^ Ward. p. 57
  31. ^ Ward. p. 58

References[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. Dictionary of Roman Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Berger, Adolph. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1991.

Brill’s New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Huber Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Brill, 2008 Brill Online.

Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd Revised Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Stambaugh, John E. The Ancient Roman City. Baltimore: The John’s Hopkins University Press, 1988.

Ward, A., Heichelheim, F., Yeo, C. A History of the Roman People. 4th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.

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