English: Overview about climatic changes and their effects on the ocean after Ciais et al. (2013) and Rhein et al. (2013). Regional effects are displayed in italics. Excess solar radiation enters the atmosphere. Ice reflects this radiation, but it is taken up by the surface ocean, leading to its warming. Ocean warming results in land ice melt and thermal expansion, which both result in a sea level rise. Heating of vast areas of the surface ocean also slowly heats up the intermediate water layer which, among others, can ultimately lead to regional changes of deep water. Regional freshening occurs on sites with melting land ice. Regional salinification on the contrary happens in areas of vast evaporation. Surface ocean warming also decreases the solubility of gases, leading to a reduced oxygen concentration and thus changes in the sea-oxygen flux. Excess anthropogenic carbon dioxide enhances its uptake by the ocean and leads to a gradual acidification of the ocean. A decreasing pH results in bicarbonate undersaturation, which causes dissolving of shells and other minerals. Regional input of reactive nitrogen can lead to fertilization and eutrophication. Another regional effect is the occurrence of high waves. Heating, reduced oxygen concentrations and eutrophication lead to higher stratification of water masses.

Sources:

• Ciais, P., Sabine, C., Bala, G., Bopp, L., Brovkin, V., Canadell, J., Chhabra, A., DeFries, R., Galloway, J., Heimann, M. and Jones, C. (2014) "Carbon and other biogeochemical cycles supplementary material". In: Climate change 2013: the physical science basis, pages 465–570, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107057999.
• Rhein M, Rintoul SR, Aoki S et al (2013) "Observations: Ocean". In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K et al (Eds.) Climate change 2013: the physical science basis, pages 255–316 Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107057999.